tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-81984094316232052522024-03-06T12:00:31.800-08:00Microbiology OnlineOne of the most comprehensive blog on the web about Microbiology Lab techniques and covers major theoratical aspects of microbiology.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.comBlogger35125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-23507270458745703762015-09-09T19:44:00.001-07:002015-09-09T19:44:12.757-07:00Development of Global Consensus of Dengue Virus Envelope Glycoprotein for Epitopes Based Vaccine Design<a href="http://benthamscience.com/journals/current-computer-aided-drug-design/volume/11/issue/1/page/84/">Development of Global Consensus of Dengue Virus Envelope Glycoprotein for Epitopes Based Vaccine Design</a>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-3567680156134766252013-12-23T13:08:00.001-08:002013-12-23T13:08:23.602-08:00Pong (Classic) Python implementation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Executable File/Downloadable 64bit</span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.4shared.com/file/pnNma64G/Pong_Setup.html">http://www.4shared.com/file/pnNma64G/Pong_Setup.html</a></span><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Source Code</span></b><br />
#Author : Mazhar Hussain<br />
#National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology<br />
#University of the Punjab, Lahore<br />
#Dated : 19- 11 - 2013<br />
<br />
<b>#Game : Pong</b><br />
<br />
import simpleguitk as simplegui<br />
import random<br />
<br />
# initialize globals - pos and vel encode vertical info for paddles<br />
WIDTH = 600<br />
HEIGHT = 400 <br />
BALL_RADIUS = 20<br />
PAD_WIDTH = 8<br />
PAD_HEIGHT = 80<br />
ball_pos = [0 , 0]<br />
ball_vel = [0 , 0]<br />
LEFT = False<br />
RIGHT = True<br />
direction = LEFT<br />
paddle1_vel = 0<br />
paddle2_vel = 0<br />
paddle1_pos = HEIGHT/2<br />
paddle2_pos = HEIGHT/2<br />
left_score = 0<br />
right_score = 0<br />
<br />
#various kinds of helper functions are defined below<br />
#paddle1position and paddle2position controls the position of paddles<br />
#present on both sides. These functions not only allows the legitimate motion<br />
#of the paddles but also lock them inside canvas<br />
def paddle1position():<br />
global paddle1_pos<br />
if (paddle1_pos > 0) and (paddle1_pos+PAD_HEIGHT < HEIGHT):<br />
paddle1_pos = (paddle1_pos + paddle1_vel)<br />
return paddle1_pos<br />
elif (paddle1_pos <= 0):<br />
paddle1_pos = paddle1_pos + 3<br />
return paddle1_pos<br />
elif ((paddle1_pos + PAD_HEIGHT) >= HEIGHT):<br />
paddle1_pos = paddle1_pos - 3<br />
return paddle1_pos<br />
<br />
def paddle2position():<br />
global paddle2_pos<br />
if (paddle2_pos > 0) and (paddle2_pos+ PAD_HEIGHT < HEIGHT):<br />
paddle2_pos = (paddle2_pos + paddle2_vel)<br />
return paddle2_pos<br />
elif (paddle2_pos <= 0):<br />
paddle2_pos = paddle2_pos + 3<br />
return paddle2_pos<br />
elif ((paddle2_pos + PAD_HEIGHT) >= HEIGHT):<br />
paddle2_pos = paddle2_pos - 3<br />
return paddle2_pos<br />
<br />
#ball_direction is the function which controls initial parameters about<br />
#ball position and speed. It also contains functions for scoring after<br />
#every failed attempt to catch ball on paddel. It contains a child function<br />
#spawn_ball which carries the initial parametters for ball direction<br />
#and velocity<br />
def ball_direction():<br />
global direction, left_score, right_score<br />
if (((ball_pos[0]) - BALL_RADIUS)<= 0):<br />
direction = RIGHT<br />
left_score += 1<br />
spawn_ball(direction)<br />
elif ((ball_pos[0]+BALL_RADIUS) >= WIDTH):<br />
direction = LEFT<br />
right_score += 1<br />
spawn_ball(direction)<br />
<br />
def spawn_ball(direction):<br />
global ball_pos, ball_vel<br />
if (direction == RIGHT):<br />
ball_vel[0] = random.randrange(120 , 240)<br />
ball_vel[1] = random.randrange(60 , 180)<br />
ball_vel = [ball_vel[0] , ball_vel[1]]<br />
ball_pos = [WIDTH/2 , HEIGHT/2]<br />
return ball_pos, ball_vel<br />
elif (direction == LEFT):<br />
ball_vel[0] = random.randrange(-240 , -120)<br />
ball_vel[1] = random.randrange(60 , 180)<br />
ball_vel = [ball_vel[0] , ball_vel[1]]<br />
ball_pos = [WIDTH/2 , HEIGHT/2]<br />
return ball_pos, ball_vel <br />
<br />
# paddle1_detector() and paddle2_detector() are collision functions.<br />
# they describes the event when ball touches the paddel. They tell<br />
# how the ball rebounds and at what velocity. Ball increase by 10% speed<br />
# after every stroke by paddel<br />
def paddle1_detector():<br />
global ball_vel, left_score<br />
if ((ball_pos[0] + 30) >= WIDTH) and ((ball_pos[1]) > paddle1_pos) and ((ball_pos[1] < (paddle1_pos + PAD_HEIGHT))):<br />
ball_vel[0] = -((ball_vel[0])*1.1)<br />
ball_vel = [ball_vel[0], ball_vel[1]]<br />
return ball_vel<br />
else:<br />
ball_vel[0] = ball_vel[0]<br />
ball_direction()<br />
<br />
def paddle2_detector():<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
global ball_vel, right_score<br />
if ((ball_pos[0] - 30) <= 0) and ((ball_pos[1]) > paddle2_pos) and ((ball_pos[1] < (paddle2_pos + PAD_HEIGHT))):<br />
ball_vel[0] = -((ball_vel[0])*1.1)<br />
ball_vel = [ball_vel[0], ball_vel[1]]<br />
return ball_vel<br />
else:<br />
ball_vel[0] = ball_vel[0]<br />
ball_direction()<br />
<br />
# new_game() is an event handler which resets the game, once the button is triggered<br />
def new_game():<br />
global paddle1_pos, paddle2_pos, left_score, right_score # these are numbers<br />
global score1, score2 # these are ints<br />
spawn_ball(direction)<br />
left_score = 0<br />
right_score = 0<br />
paddle1_pos = HEIGHT/2<br />
paddle2_pos = HEIGHT/2<br />
<br />
# draw(c) is event handler for drawing function. It is about everything we see on<br />
# screen... it is about printing the ball position... it directly calls<br />
# the paddel detector function<br />
def draw(c):<br />
global score1, score2, paddle1_pos, paddle2_pos, ball_pos, ball_vel<br />
c.draw_line([WIDTH / 2, 0],[WIDTH / 2, HEIGHT], 1, "White")<br />
c.draw_line([PAD_WIDTH, 0],[PAD_WIDTH, HEIGHT], 1, "White")<br />
c.draw_line([WIDTH - PAD_WIDTH, 0],[WIDTH - PAD_WIDTH, HEIGHT], 1, "White")<br />
c.draw_text(str(right_score), (100, 100), 60, 'Green')<br />
c.draw_text(str(left_score), (450, 100), 60, 'Yellow')<br />
if (((ball_pos[1])-BALL_RADIUS) <= 0):<br />
ball_vel[1] = -(ball_vel[1])<br />
ball_pos[0] += (ball_vel[0])/60<br />
ball_pos[1] += (ball_vel[1])/60<br />
ball_pos = [(ball_pos[0]) , (ball_pos[1])]<br />
c.draw_circle(ball_pos, BALL_RADIUS, 3, 'White', 'White')<br />
elif ((ball_pos[1])+(BALL_RADIUS) >= (HEIGHT)):<br />
ball_vel[1] = -(ball_vel[1])<br />
ball_pos[0] += (ball_vel[0])/60<br />
ball_pos[1] += (ball_vel[1])/60<br />
ball_pos = [(ball_pos[0]) , (ball_pos[1])]<br />
c.draw_circle(ball_pos, BALL_RADIUS, 3, 'White', 'White')<br />
else:<br />
ball_pos[0] += (ball_vel[0])/60<br />
ball_pos[1] += (ball_vel[1])/60<br />
ball_pos = [(ball_pos[0]) , (ball_pos[1])]<br />
c.draw_circle(ball_pos, BALL_RADIUS, 3, 'White', 'White')<br />
c.draw_line([(PAD_WIDTH), (paddle2position())],[PAD_WIDTH, (paddle2position()+PAD_HEIGHT)], 10, "White")<br />
c.draw_line([WIDTH - PAD_WIDTH, (paddle1position())],[WIDTH - PAD_WIDTH, (paddle1position()+PAD_HEIGHT)], 10, "White")<br />
paddle1_detector()<br />
paddle2_detector() <br />
<br />
<br />
# keydown and keyup handlers which are triggered once a key is pressed<br />
def keydown(key):<br />
global paddle1_vel, paddle2_vel<br />
if key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["down"]:<br />
paddle1_vel= 3<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["up"]:<br />
paddle1_vel = -3<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["s"]:<br />
paddle2_vel = 3<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["w"]:<br />
paddle2_vel = -3<br />
<br />
def keyup(key):<br />
global paddle1_vel, paddle2_vel<br />
if key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["down"]:<br />
paddle1_vel= 0<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["up"]:<br />
paddle1_vel = 0<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["s"]:<br />
paddle2_vel = 0<br />
elif key == simplegui.KEY_MAP["w"]:<br />
paddle2_vel = 0<br />
<br />
frame = simplegui.create_frame("Pong", WIDTH, HEIGHT)<br />
frame.set_draw_handler(draw)<br />
frame.set_keydown_handler(keydown)<br />
frame.set_keyup_handler(keyup)<br />
frame.add_button("RESTART GAME", new_game, 120)<br />
def about_me():<br />
<br />
top = "************************************************************************"<br />
top1= "--------------------------------ABOUT ME--------------------------------"<br />
<br />
x1 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>This game is developed by me, Mazhar Hussain, on the<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x2 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>top of PYTHON. I have completed my MPhil in Molecular<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x3 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Biology from National Centre of Excellence in Molecular<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x4 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Biology. My BS(Hons) is in Microbiology and Molecular<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x5 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Genetics from University of the Punjab, Lahore. This<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x6 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>game is 1972 version of PONG, which is infact very<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x7 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>famous among teens of developing countries.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x8 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x9 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>I have implemented various concepts in its development,<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x10 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>which include functions, conditionals, graphic-user-interface<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x11 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>and random number generator. This game simply demonstrate<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x12 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>the visualization of graphics and control of objects using<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x13 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>KEYBOARD.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
print str(top)+"\n"+str(top1)+"\n"+str(top)+"\n"+str(x1)+"\n"+ str(x2)+"\n"+str(x3)+"\n"+ str(x4)+"\n" +str(x5)+"\n"+ str(x6)+"\n"+str(x7)+"\n"+ str(x8)+"\n"+str(x9)+"\n"+ str(x10)+"\n" +str(x11)+"\n"+ str(x12)+"\n"+ str(x13)<br />
<br />
<br />
def how_to_play():<br />
<br />
top = "************************************************************************"<br />
top1= "----------------------------How To Play---------------------------------"<br />
<br />
x1 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Rules are pretty simple. Game is controlled by two paddles <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x2 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>left and right. Left paddle up and down motion is <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x3 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>controlled by 'w' and 's', respectively while the <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x4 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>paddle on right is controlled by up and down arrow keys.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x5 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>As long as ball stays on table, it gains speed by 10% increment.|"<br />
x6 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>When ball misses the paddle and go in gutter, opposite player<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x7 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>will gain the points.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
x8 = "|<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>|"<br />
<br />
print str(top)+"\n"+str(top1)+"\n"+str(top)+"\n"+str(x1)+"\n"+ str(x2)+"\n"+str(x3)+"\n"+ str(x4)+"\n" +str(x5)+"\n"+ str(x6)+"\n"+str(x7)+"\n"+ str(x8)+"\n"<br />
<br />
frame.add_button("Play Instructions", how_to_play, 120) <br />
frame.add_button("About Me", about_me, 120)<br />
<br />
new_game()<br />
spawn_ball(direction)<br />
<br />
frame.start()<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-48196973487663097522013-12-23T12:41:00.000-08:002013-12-23T12:41:29.555-08:00Guess the Number<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Executable File/Downloadable 64bit</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.4shared.com/file/8i1rqh60/GuessSetup.html">http://www.4shared.com/file/8i1rqh60/GuessSetup.html</a></span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Source Code</span></h3>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">#Author : Mazhar Hussain</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">#Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">#University of the Punjab Lahore</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">#Dated : 01 - 11 - 2013</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><b>#Game : Guess the Number</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">import random </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""Calls Module random which generates a random number in</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">given range</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">import simpleguitk as simplegui</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""Calls Module simplegui which produces the input fields</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">and interactive graphic-user-interface</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># initialize global variables used in your code</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">computer_number = 0 # carries random number from random module</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">attempts_left = 0 # contains value of remaining number of attempts</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">default_attempts = 0 # it directly takes value from initial trigger</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> # and preserve value for next playing session</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">set_value_from = 0 # provides initial value to randrange function in random</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">set_value_to = 100 # provides final value to randrange function in random</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># helper function to start and restart the game</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""can trigger new_game by taking values from the previous game</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">regarding number of attempts left but generates new value from</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">random module using random_generator function in game</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def new_game():</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global attempts_left</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> random_generator(set_value_from , set_value_to)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> attempts_left = default_attempts</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">random_generator() is function in the heart of game</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">it directly generates random number in given range</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">and then preserves the </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def random_generator (set_value_from, set_value_to):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global computer_number</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> computer_number = random.randrange (set_value_from, set_value_to)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> return computer_number</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">attempts_remaining() is helping function and it counts down</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">the attempts to zero and ultimately using conditionals</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">assissts in terminating game, if correct number was not guessed</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def attempts_remaining():</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global attempts_left</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> attempts_left = attempts_left - 1</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> return attempts_left</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Helper function, Which Prints Current State of Game in fanciful way.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">It is called from range100() and range1000() event handlers</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def state_of_game(set_value_from, set_value_to, attempts_left):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "===================================\n",</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "Guess the Number Between "+ str(set_value_from) + " to " + str(set_value_to) + "\n",</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "and you have only "+str(attempts_left) +" attempts. :D"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "===================================" </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># define event handlers for control panel</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Handle of "Guess Number from 0-100" button. When button is pressed</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">it sets the variables so that "State of Guess the Number in 0 to 100"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">becomes active. Declares global variables which are vital for not only</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">current game but also for subsequent game on same settings</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def range100():</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global set_value_from, set_value_to</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global attempts_left, default_attempts</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> set_value_from = 0</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> set_value_to = 100</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> attempts_left = 7</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> default_attempts = 7</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> computer_number = random_generator(set_value_from , set_value_to)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> state_of_game(set_value_from, set_value_to, attempts_left)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> # button that changes range to range [0,100) and restart</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Handle of "Guess Number from 0-1000" button. Other details are same as</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">discussed for "Guess Number from 0-100) button.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def range1000():</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global set_value_from, set_value_to</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> global attempts_left, default_attempts</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> set_value_from = 0</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> set_value_to = 1000</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> attempts_left = 10</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> default_attempts = 10</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> computer_number = random_generator(set_value_from , set_value_to)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> state_of_game(set_value_from, set_value_to, attempts_left)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Core of game, which compares Computer's generated number and player's guess.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">It suggests player to GUESS HIGHER or LOWER NUMBER. It counts on the number of attempts</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">left. It contains rules for declaring win or lose. It immeditely triggers the next</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">game as soon as current game is ended.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">"""</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">def input_guess(player_number):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> if (attempts_remaining() == 0) and (computer_number == int(player_number)):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "-----------------------------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "You Guessed the Number "+str(player_number)+" and Your all attempts are over,"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "----------------------But You Guessed the Correct Number---------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "--------------------------Congratulations! You Won---------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "----------------Wishing You Awesome Performane in Next Game Too--------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "-----------------------------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "----------------------------Triggered New Game------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> new_game()</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> elif (attempts_left == 0) and (computer_number != int(player_number)):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "You Guessed the Number "+str(player_number)+" and Your all attempts are over,"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "----------------The correct number was "+str(computer_number)+"-------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------Better Luck in the Next Game--------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "--------------------Triggered New Game---------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> new_game()</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> else:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> if (computer_number == int(player_number)):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "You Guessed the Number "+str(player_number)+", which is Correct"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print ">>>>>>>>>>>Congratualations You Did it!!!<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "---------Wishing You Best of Luck For Next Game--------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "------------------Triggered New Game------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> new_game()</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> elif (computer_number > int(player_number)):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print"----------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "You guessed the number "+str(player_number)+" and left "+str(attempts_left)+" attempts"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print ">>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>Guess Higher<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> else:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print"----------------------------------------------"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print "You guessed the number "+str(player_number)+" and left "+str(attempts_left)+" attempts"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"> print ">>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>Guess Lower<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># create frame</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">frame = simplegui.create_frame("Guess the Number", 200, 200)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># register event handlers for control elements</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">frame.add_button ("Guess Number from 0 - 100", range100)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">frame.add_button ("Guess Number from 0 - 1000", range1000)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">frame.add_input ("Put Your Guess Here (Integers Only)", input_guess , 200)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">range100()</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"># call new_game and start frame</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">frame.start()</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace; font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-64022082016260780192011-12-05T05:07:00.001-08:002011-12-06T01:17:54.452-08:00Virus size and Its Relationship to Genome Nature and Envelop<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
Preparation
of notes during examinations preparation is one of the most tedious
tasks, but key of my happiness is that it always give me some daunting
clues about facts which are not provided in books. While I was preparing
for my mid-terms at university. I came to know a great correlation in
infection causing viruses size with other components. It is
non-statistical analysis, performed on very limited number of viruses.
But damn interesting.</div>
<div style="color: #38761d; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Sizes of medically important viruses</b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
These
viruses are well-known and volumes of literature is available on all of
them. Their sizes vary from 10nm to 380nm. But important thing to
consider is that most of viruses concentrate from 50-100nm sizes. So
viruses at other both extremes are very very less in number, but rare
means something unique in all. So, I will be discussing them one by one.</div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #38761d; font-size: large;">DNA viruses</span></b></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
These viruses are in range of 50-100nm diameter, with <a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Herpes" target="_blank">Herpes </a>virus and <a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Pox" target="_blank">Pox </a>virus
as exceptions which are moderately larger than this range. Herpes and
Pox viruses are different from other viruses in a sense that their sizes
are very much variable as compared to other <a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/DNA_virus" target="_blank">DNA viruses</a>. Most of DNA viruses have size variation of about 10nm e.g <a href="http://www.ivdcare.com/images/adenojpg.gif" target="_blank">Adenoviruses </a>(70-80nm), <a href="http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/%7Ecastillo/NotesImages/Topic159NotesImage1.jpg" target="_blank">Papovaviridae </a>(45-55nm), while <a href="http://www.genitleherpestreatment.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Human-herpesvirus.jpg" target="_blank">Herpes virus</a> and <a href="http://www.microbiologybytes.com/virology/3035pics/Pox1.gif" target="_blank">Pox viruses</a> are ranging from 120-150nm and 170-260nm respectively. Exceptions like <a href="http://www.scielo.org.pe/img/revistas/amp/v25n2/a10fig01a.jpg" target="_blank">Hepadna-viruses</a> are discrete 42nm particles with partially double stranded genomes and associated reverse transcriptase enzyme.</div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>RNA viruses</b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/RNA_virus" target="_blank">RNA viruses</a>
are categorized into (i) ssRNA and (ii) dsRNA viruses. RNA viruses
which are single stranded can be of +ve polarity (sense) or -ve
polarity, based upon their ability to translate directly or possession
of RNA trancriptase association to RNA genome. </div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
When we check RNA viruses, we find them in all ranges of sizes. They are as small as 20nm diameter (<a href="http://www.virology.wisc.edu/virusworld/ICTV8/cpv-canine-parvovirus-ictv8.jpg" target="_blank">Parvoviruses</a>) and highly large viruses such as <a href="http://education.expasy.org/images/Rhabdoviridae_virion.jpg" target="_blank">Rhabdoviridae</a>.
It was a thing of interest that +ve sense RNA viruses were relatively
smaller in size as compared to -ve sense RNA viruses. For example,
viruses of <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjREKKmHw1srxQZJrPq_5hLI6IoDm91IvgKxJTCd9ooRdlU_BRY-kH6qjpsXP649Rg-ahnmW-dBRsW6Ep4MlxYRxZFCu_f_xzMtRWS6HLo0Cq6_yS-acYNIalJS-fRIQpNtLMGixNCmUGg/s320/Flaviviridae+pic+1.gif" target="_blank">Flaviviridae </a>are largest to all in +ve sense viruses, which vary in size from 40-70nm (although <a href="http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/virol/corona-diag.gif" target="_blank">coronavirus </a>is also larger than this but its exception in all). While viruses of dsRNA are also present at this upper limit, <a href="http://www.microbiologybytes.com/virology/3035pics/Diarrhoea2.gif" target="_blank">Reoviridae </a>members
vary in size from 60-80nm, almost same size as of Adenoviruses of
ds-DNA viurses. As, size among RNA viruses start increasing from 80nm,
virus type completely shifts to -ve sense, size variability begin to
increase which become highest at Rhabdoviridae. Rhabdoviridae members
are ranging from 130-380nm in size in one dimension. Another exception
at this extreme of size is that genomes of <a href="http://education.expasy.org/images/Arenaviridae_virion.jpg" target="_blank">Arenaviridae </a>members can be linear or circular and these are the only viruses which have ribosomes in side nucleocapsid. </div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: #38761d; font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Size: A direct impact on viral symmetry</b></span></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
Most
remarkable finding which was observed is that as sizes increase viruses
start to be asymmetrical. Smallest viruses are very fine with
ico-sahedral symmetry. And this thing was found common in all viruses
including DNA and RNA. The largest viruses which were observed with
icosahedon were Adenoviruses among DNA viruses and Reoviridae members of
RNA viruses. Then, helical symmetry begins, which was optimistically
ended at 180nm. Coronaviridae members are largest and most variable
members with helical symmetry. Now, irregular shaped viruses with
complex dimension appear. They are two which are Pox virus and
Rhabdovirus. Rabdoviruses are bullet shaped having length (130-380nm)
and diameter (50-95nm).</div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #38761d;">Viral envelop is size dependent</span></span></b></div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
This
was observed that viruses with smaller sizes were without any kind of
envelop and outermost covering was capsid protein. As sizes continue to
increase, envelop begins to incorporate in viral structures. Envelop was
found to impart asymmetry in structure and viruses were begin to be
more variable in shapes as compared to smaller sized viruses. It was
also observed that all viruses which have historical importance such as
Herpes and Pox Viridae members contain an envelop outside their
nucleocapsid, which is usually host derived.</div>
<div style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-31032306681079786682011-05-08T03:22:00.001-07:002011-05-08T03:22:59.575-07:00Test to Help Speed-Up Distinguishing Between MRSA and MSSA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Health experts will now be able to save time when trying to determine whether Staphylococcus aureus infections in patients are methicillin resistant (MRSA) or methicillin susceptible (MSSA), as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced on Friday that it has cleared a test that will allow a speed-up in the process.<br />
<br />
There are various types of Staphylococci bacteria, some of which are easily treated with antibiotics and some that are resistant to this treatment, such as MRSA.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.kgoam810.com/rssItem.asp?feedid=116&itemid=29666315">For more information, click here</a> </div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-15039775542295160842011-05-08T03:21:00.000-07:002011-05-08T03:21:25.458-07:00Prostate cancer biopsies linked to risk of serious infection<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">The specter of prostate cancer is alarming enough – and it just got even more alarming. Some doctors are reporting that men who get biopsies for prostate cancer may be putting themselves at risk for infection by drug-resistant bacteria.<br />
<a href="http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/06/news/la-heb-prostate-biopsy-infection-20110506">for more information, click here</a> </div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-30473247893255373822011-05-08T03:15:00.000-07:002011-05-08T03:15:14.210-07:00New contraceptive in the pipeline<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">It's still at least a decade off, but Professor John Aitken, says the gel could be applied to a small, pliable sponge and inserted in the vagina up to 48 hours before sexual intercourse.<br />
As soon as semen makes contact with the gel, the sperm are paralysed and any STI-causing organisms are killed.<br />
At present, there are not any "local compounds" available that can be applied to prevent STIs, just the "classic" spermicide, which was a "crude inhibitor of fertility", Prof Aitken said.<br />
"Women who use a lot of this stuff, especially commercial sex workers, are significantly more likely to get HIV than women who don't use it ... it just destroys everything around it," he said.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/breaking-news/new-contraceptive-in-the-pipeline/story-e6frf7jx-1226050024667">For full story, click here</a> </div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-20609690593470913242011-05-08T03:12:00.000-07:002011-05-08T03:12:23.891-07:00Gut microbes: What's your type?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">When European researchers set out to use gene sequencing to catalog the hundreds of species of microbes in the human gut, they expected to find variation between individuals and perhaps even between geographic groups -- but they assumed that there would be a large number of different possible combinations of bacteria.<br />
<br />
Instead, said bioinformatics expert Peer Bork of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, gut bacteria seem to cluster into just three distinct and stable combinations that show up across populations from a variety of backgrounds -- a discovery that could have implications for medicine in the future. <br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_834569739"><br />
</a><br />
<a href="http://www.latimes.com/health/boostershots/la-heb-gut-microbe-types-nature-20110420,0,4096601.story">For complete story</a></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-16776047251323414752011-02-10T21:46:00.000-08:002011-02-10T21:46:10.794-08:00Gut microbes influence behavior<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Gut microbes acquired early in life can impact brain development in mice and subsequent behavior, such as decreasing physical activity and increasing anxiety, according to a study published this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://images.the-scientist.com/content/images/general/57968-1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" h5="true" height="177" src="http://images.the-scientist.com/content/images/general/57968-1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">This paper opens the door to new studies in at least two directions," Yale University microbiologist Andrew Goodman, who was not involved in the research, told The Scientist in an email. "First, determining how differences between complete host-associated microbial communities lead to differences in behavior, and second, exploring the contributions of microbes during specific developmental periods in the host." </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Gut microbiota often colonize their hosts early in life, either during pregnancy or following birth, and play an integral role in the health of developing organisms. Previous research has shown that the bacteria affect the development of liver function, the protection epithelial cells afford underlying digestive tissue, gut regulation and the growth of new capillary blood vessels. But this is the first time gut flora have been linked to brain development and behavior. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Harmful microbial infections, on the other hand, have been linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. And rodents infected by microbial pathogens before and after birth demonstrated behavioral abnormalities, such as anxiety-like behavior and impaired cognitive function, leading Rochellys Diaz Heijtz, a neurobiologist at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, and her colleagues to wonder if the gut's normal microbial residents may similarly influence brain development. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The researchers tested exploratory activity in germ-free mice and mice with normal gut microbiota by tracking their movements across open space. They also tested anxiety of the two groups in two classic rodent behavioral tests -- the light-dark box and the elevated maze. Spending more time in lit areas and along unwalled, elevated maze portions equated to less anxiety. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Germ-free mice appeared to be more exploratory than mice with normal microbiota, venturing farther and to more areas of the space provided. Germ-free mice also spent more time in the light and engaged in riskier behavior in the maze, indicating they suffered from less anxiety than their microbe-filled counterparts. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The team then infected germ-free mice with normal gut microbiota when they were born to test whether the gut flora could alter the mice's activity and anxiety levels. Sure enough, the newly infected mice spent less time exploring and engaging in risky behavior, like the normal mice in the initial experiments. The results further supported the argument that the microorganisms can affect brain and behavior when introduced early enough in development. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">"These microorganisms communicate in a systemic fashion to the developmental programming of a new individual and can influence fundamental aspects of behavior," said Diaz Heijtz. "We should start to consider the possibility that the microbiome and/or its composition may contribute to psychiatric problems." </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Looking more closely at the gut flora's effects on the brain, the researchers found that germ-free mice had lower turnover rates of certain neurotransmitters in the striatum, the part of the brain involved in the regulation of motor and cognitive function, than in mice with normal gut microbiota. There were also differences in the levels of key synaptic-related proteins and signaling molecules involved in central nervous system communication. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">"This all means that there has been an evolutionary adaption of host-microbe interactions to the most complex organ in the body, the brain," said coauthor Sven Pettersson, a neuro- and microbiologist at the Karolinska Institute. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The scientists stress that there are still many unanswered questions and further research is needed to understand the broad implications of the research. For example, the study didn't distinguish the effects of maternally inherited microbes from those acquired shortly after birth, Goodman noted. "It is also not clear whether microbes residing in other body habitats are playing a role," he said, such as those located in the nose, ears, mouth or vagina. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Next up, Diaz Heijtz and her colleagues are hoping to pinpoint which gut microbiota are affecting brain development and behavior. They also plan to identify which brain cells are responding, and work out the details of the signaling pathways that allow the microbiota to communicate with the brain. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Read more: Gut microbes influence behavior - The Scientist - Magazine of the Life Sciences http://www.the-scientist.com/news/display/57968/#ixzz1DctPddZu</div></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-86576711094274661302010-11-14T17:30:00.001-08:002010-11-14T17:30:05.332-08:00Antibody- is naturally a SUPERANTIBODY<p align="justify">Antibodies protect us from cell infections working extracellularly [1], by blocking the viruses and flagging the pathogens which are eaten by special immune cells [3]. This procedure is known as neutralization [2]. It was believed that viruses can take shelter (by entering in the cell) from immune system [2].</p> <p align="justify"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEha-hXbl0e6hxE2TMxg7tYyTP2s3YEn3_iurl0AOu-BsGMX8am_ldHbzfsDJFQWUMfNvx2mCSF8UBN-Smm4kCHrQe76SyA1YSw3Tl5LMz2ZSbCduJ3EJQnTWqWJgzf5VJ7oLR1TPgEHMV1d/s1600-h/antibody_size_test%5B3%5D.jpg"><img title="antibody_size_test" style="border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; border-left: 0px; margin-right: auto; border-bottom: 0px" height="214" alt="antibody_size_test" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc0K6Y0mWg-CDTs_s54aTrmeJyUwpD0SClPv28TNY2gI40IGEO0DoHw2FLabfw9SgrYEnWeNh1Vcn7KKXzIVVReHeCUlp_obPG1fu67TPus6Nu7h8OrWisCI-5RMvsZlQ_1o-9l1Hmbkgb/?imgmax=800" width="244" border="0" /></a> </p> <p align="justify">A super-antibody was proposed having increased effectiveness against pathogens. So, chemical modifications were suggested which would allow antibodies to enter in cell, tag the pathogen and kill them. This antibody (hypothetical) was given name super-antibody. The parameters which determine the effectiveness of it depends upon the mode of entry to cell, the concentration and stability inside the cell. They were expected to be effective against both viral as well as cancer diseases [5].</p> <p align="justify">In 1946, MRC established a common cold unit in Former Military Hospital at Wiltshire. It continued research for 40 years on common cold by collaboration with volunteers. Next was to perform clinical trials on new treatments of common cold. So, common cold unit re-established in Cardiff University in year 1988 [1]. </p> <p align="justify">  <div class="wlWriterEditableSmartContent" id="scid:5737277B-5D6D-4f48-ABFC-DD9C333F4C5D:3127a4f1-b094-46a5-b386-4df2989afba7" style="padding-right: 0px; display: block; padding-left: 0px; float: none; padding-bottom: 0px; margin: 0px auto; width: 375px; padding-top: 0px"><div id="044451cb-47ac-455b-bcf3-7e3a35bea7d9" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; display: inline;"><div><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrYlZJiuf18&NR=1&feature=fvwp" target="_new"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAQ47NH4UyX-Z5TG_Seb_svB8QEtwtpmdEKJjYD4T7WWTeWZiJ3goGWnEnTBu8fqdFS4THflvbBJCOjtFFWm0AxDT-i9HyWfjG_eCtOG_AQhGV1JPphYl-gpCnCkFSznoF_ri9aGtGJR4l/?imgmax=800" style="border-style: none" galleryimg="no" onload="var downlevelDiv = document.getElementById('044451cb-47ac-455b-bcf3-7e3a35bea7d9'); downlevelDiv.innerHTML = "<div><object width=\"375\" height=\"314\"><param name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/lrYlZJiuf18&hl=en\"><\/param><embed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/lrYlZJiuf18&hl=en\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" width=\"375\" height=\"314\"><\/embed><\/object><\/div>";" alt=""></a></div></div></div> </p> <p align="justify">A research led by Leo James and Coworkers [3], published at November 2, 2010, in journal proceedings of National Academy of Sciences. In this research Adenovirus, the causative agent of upper respiratory tract infections, was grown on Petriplates containing human cells [2]. This fundamental research was to understand the way immune system fight against viral diseases [1].<img title="images" style="border-right: 0px; border-top: 0px; display: block; float: none; margin-left: auto; border-left: 0px; margin-right: auto; border-bottom: 0px" height="230" alt="images" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4A9GUgdtbois8qsSI4IrE0ZvLouYVhNBJ3ptbWKDhH_8v-6kGDZrG3hAfviXL1JGJ-MJ0H4J0ugTQYxhr8SAHBsrkSzyDbZ6HD8Wp7jAQc_XXDCA6gEr8_zEilX8RjXeuCP5IrW5h12-5/?imgmax=800" width="227" border="0" /></p> <p align="justify"></p> <p align="justify">It was elucidated that before virus invade into cell, antibodies cling to it. Inside the cell antibodies call another component TRIM-21 (Triple Motif Containing 21) [3], which escort them to “Disposal system” of the cell [1, 2]. This cell recycler is renowned proteosome [3] which is cellular structure (containing proteases). This all, TRIM-21 binding and escorting to destination, happen before virus hijack the cell [1]. Increase in viral destruction observed by increase in concentration of this protein [2]. So, it was practically proved that this protein has some role in viral destruction.</p> <p align="justify">It is believed that this research will help in infections such as common cold, winter vomiting bug and gastroenteritis [1]. Studies say Rotavirus, causative agent of severe Diarrhea, can be killed within 2 hours [4]. Unfortunately, this cannot be applied on broad spectrum of viruses, only non-enveloped viruses are susceptible. It is effective against influenza virus because influenza virus shed the envelop just before entering the cell [2]. This new finding has aroused a hope among researchers that a spray or inhaler can be produced which will enhance the viral destruction [4]. Same MRC group is working on animal system now [2].</p> <p align="justify">It is speculated that enhancement of this process can lead to novel sort of antiviral drug. Dr. Jordon Orange, immunologist at Children hospital says that its interesting, exciting and expanding understanding about way antibody works [2]. But in the nut shell, establishing treatment from in vitro experiments is a distant dream yet [1].</p> <h4>References</h4> <ol> <li> <p> <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/ferguswalsh/2010/11/a_cure_for_the_common_cold_excuse_me_while_i_sneez.html" target="_blank">A cure for the common cold? Excuse me while I sneeze.</a> </p> </li> <li> <p><a href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/40010677/ns/health-cold_and_flu/" target="_blank">Body's hidden defense against colds uncovered</a> </p> </li> <li> <p><a href="http://blogs.nature.com/news/thegreatbeyond/2010/11/the_immunology_paper_that_wont.html" target="_blank">The immunology paper that won't cure the common cold</a> </p> </li> <li> <p><a href="http://www.foxnews.com/health/2010/11/02/cure-common-cold/" target="_blank">Cure for the Common Cold</a></p> </li> <li><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/8109902/Could-this-lead-to-a-cure-for-the-common-cold.html" target="_blank"> <p><a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/8109902/Could-this-lead-to-a-cure-for-the-common-cold.html" target="_blank">Could this lead to a cure for the common cold?</a></p> </a></li> </ol> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-70545070569391351052010-11-14T09:31:00.001-08:002010-11-14T09:31:50.454-08:00A Biology Quiz<Module> <ModulePrefs title="Syvum Biology Quizzes" description="Get a new question from Syvum's free online interactive Biology quiz activities everytime you view the gadget, or select a question from a variety of categories such as human systems, plant systems and animal systems." author="Syvum" author_email="support_email@syvum.com" screenshot="http://www.syvum.com/images/gadget/biologygadget.png" thumbnail="http://www.syvum.com/images/gadget/thumb1.png" author_location="Canada" author_affiliation="Syvum Technologies Inc." title_url="http://www.syvum.com/squizzes/biology/" height="300" width="234"/> − <Content type="html"> <script language="JavaScript">var syvum_scheme_num = 1;var syvum_gem_size = "sbox";var syvum_gem_number = 9637258339;var syvum_category="Biology";var syvum_affiliate_id="gadget";</script><script language="JavaScript" src="http://scripts.syvum.com/gems.js"></script> </Content> </Module> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-32266244242733482712010-10-23T14:14:00.001-07:002010-10-23T14:14:49.216-07:00Broccoli – A Food and A Medicine<p align="justify"><strong>Broccoli and Its Nutritional Value</strong></p> <p align="justify">Broccoli is a high fiber and cruciferous vegetable which is also known as super food [3,4]. Its green florets produce sulforaphan, a compound which is highly heat stable and potent anticancer agent [1].</p> <p align="justify"> </p> <p align="justify"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYdZe2x-o-LzmxtYAeFcDgaMhds61Tp7Cyf6ZEhNG6ARaEhExreV_9LrNrpJCAYu7Y8C1yIaBYXvanYdTtq8ywrTe_4LyHWQsXHMmWgOQTePGh_4n4hyDp6fydV9PahGL7ePV05yIqhSVN/s1600-h/article-1323011-0B6A68A2000005DC-982_468x314%5B4%5D.jpg"><img title="article-1323011-0B6A68A2000005DC-982_468x314" style="border-top-width: 0px; display: block; border-left-width: 0px; float: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-right-width: 0px" height="264" alt="article-1323011-0B6A68A2000005DC-982_468x314" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1rst-BjnefzknXA-g_GXWS4HeyOK_-vz_M6vfdopr2SjoMmHk8HfNbZ9O8OqVkw3f-JCzuPEawB2ZIctLcxc5TRd_v5PPwye1Kht6xq-_kJ3yJaQ00j3ZubgAn5nDeo7b2N7nGusWk0hV/?imgmax=800" width="391" border="0" /></a> </p> <p align="justify"><strong>Misconceptions</strong></p> <p align="justify">It is believed that there are enzymes present which are responsible for production of sulforaphan in Broccoli. So, they should be inactivated during cooking and result should be in no production of given compound. But experiments proved that it was a misconception [2].</p> <p align="justify"><strong>Broccoli and Its Medicinal Application</strong></p> <p align="justify">During a research at University of Illinois, Elizabeth Jeffery, professor of Human Nutrition found that lower gut microbial flora was actively releasing sulforaphan from broccoli and absorbing [1,2]. Experiment was performed using rat as test animal and work was published in Journal of Food and Function [5]. Elizabeth believe using probiotics with prebiotics (broccoli) enhance proliferation of microbes occur. So taking broccoli with yogurt can prove to be a good choice [2,4]. It will help to increase the activity of both broccoli as well as colon inhabiting bacteria against cancer cells [1].</p> <p align="justify"><strong>Scope of Study</strong></p> <p align="justify">The importance of above mentioned study is that the intestinal region examined was strikingly similar with human colon which indicated our system will work similar way [6]. Broccoli is already believed to be effective against colon, breast and prostate cancer [3,5]. Studies earlier in 2010 at University of Michigan has proved that concentrated doses of sulforaphan are effective for treatment of breast cancer [6]. </p> <p align="justify"><strong>References</strong></p> <ol> <li><a href="http://frenchtribune.com/teneur/101725-scientists-attempt-boost-broccoli-s-ability-fight-cancer"> <p align="justify"></p> </a><a href="http://frenchtribune.com/teneur/101725-scientists-attempt-boost-broccoli-s-ability-fight-cancer">Scientists Attempt To Boost Broccoli’s Ability To Fight Cancer</a></a></a> </li> <li> <p align="justify"><a href="http://topnews.co.uk/215156-research-finds-broccoli-s-anti-cancer-potential-can-be-boosted">Research Finds that Broccoli’s Anti-Cancer Potential Can Be Boosted</a></p> </li> <li> <p align="justify"><a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top-stories/2010/10/23/broccoli-can-help-prevent-bowel-cancer-115875-22652763/">Broccoli can help prevent bowel cancer</a></p> </li> <li> <p align="justify"><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/probiotics-in-yogurt-boost-benefits-of-broccoli-2114416.html">Probiotics in yogurt boost benefits of broccoli</a></p> </li> <li> <p align="justify"><a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1323011/How-benefits-broccoli-lower-risk-bowel-cancer-overcooked.html?ito=feeds-newsxml">How broccoli can lower the risk of bowel cancer - even if it is overcooked</a> </p> </li> <li> <p align="justify"><a href="http://www.aolnews.com/surge-desk/article/scientists-working-to-increase-broccolis-cancer-busting-potenti/19685371">Tweak Could Enhance Broccoli's Cancer-Busting Potential</a></p> </li> </ol> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-47719114494054330232010-04-10T13:29:00.001-07:002010-04-10T13:29:27.381-07:00Important News to All Friends<p align="justify">Dear Friends!</p> <p align="justify">I am feeling pleasure to introduce that I have launched a new group on FaceBook, so that our blog continue spreading the knowledge. For this purpose, please spread this message to promote our group. Discuss the topics, news about modern achievements, articles, books and share your valuable remarks. The link of group is given below.</p> <p align="justify"><a title="http://www.facebook.com/pages/Austin-TX/Microbial-Earth/141455174773?ref=ts&v=wall#!/group.php?gid=113583648659879&ref=ts" href="http://www.facebook.com/pages/Austin-TX/Microbial-Earth/141455174773?ref=ts&v=wall#!/group.php?gid=113583648659879&ref=ts">http://www.facebook.com/pages/Austin-TX/Microbial-Earth/141455174773?ref=ts&v=wall#!/group.php?gid=113583648659879&ref=ts</a></p> <p align="justify">thanks in advance for promoting the group. Regards!</p> <p align="justify"><strong><em>Mazhar Hussain</em></strong></p> <p align="justify"><strong>Microbiology & </strong><strong>Molecular Genetics</strong></p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-44251897998431994962010-04-09T11:46:00.001-07:002010-04-09T11:54:04.983-07:00Probiotics and Their Benefits to Health<span xmlns=''><p><span style='font-size:12pt'>There are thousands of things which are eatable included yogurts, cheese and pickles. If we try to see them in history of mankind then their roots will be very ancient indicating that man is biotechnologist from very beginning of civilization. So, today <a href='http://www.stonyfield.com'><span style='color:#2200cc'>Stonyfield Farm</span></a><span style='color:black'> is famous for yogurt, <a href='http://www.mtolivepickles.com'/></span><span style='color:#2200cc'>Mt. Olive<span style='text-decoration:underline'> <strong>Pickle Company</strong>, Inc</span></span><span style='color:black'> is largest company making pickles and <a href='http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-15730375.html'/></span><span style='color:#2200cc'>McCadam<span style='text-decoration:underline'> <strong>Cheese Company</strong> In</span></span><span style='color:black'>c is one of the oldest companies in new York in the field of cheese industry.<br /></span></span></p><p><a href='wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn'><span style='font-size:12pt'>Probiotics</span></a><span style='font-size:12pt'><span style='color:black'> are simply defined as "microorganisms in food which provide benefit beyond nutritional value." In this they are not acting as food but helping the digestive tract to digest the food. <a href='en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lactobacillus'/></span><em>Lactobacillus</em><span style='color:black'> is most common probiotic present in yogurt and <a href='http://www.google.com.pk/search?hl=en&ei=2nS_S8jIOsqLkAWHuMzWBQ&sa=X&oi=spellfullpage&resnum=0&ct=result&cd=2&ved=0CAYQvwUoAQ&q=Saccharomyces+cerevisiae&spell=1'/></span><span style='color:#2200cc'><strong><em>Saccharomyces</em></strong><span style='text-decoration:underline'> <strong><em>cerevisiae</em></strong></span></span><span style='color:black'> is present in bakery products.<br /></span></span></p><p><span style='color:black; font-size:12pt'>Only that organism will be considered as potential probiotic which has following features:<br /></span></p><ol><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>The organism which can sustain its viability in the desired food product.<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>Organism titer in food should be high<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>It can resist environmental conditions inside digestive tract. (Gastric juices etc)<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>It must be competent to stick with the walls of digestive system.<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>It must have ability to change the environmental conditions.<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>And last but not least important, it must not be pathogenic.<br /></span></li></ol><p><span style='font-size:12pt'>In Food industry, mostly it is being used for following purposes:<br /></span></p><ol><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>To preserve food (e.g. cheese)<br /></span></li><li><span style='font-size:12pt'>To give flavor to some product (Acetaldehyde)<br /></span></li></ol><p><span style='font-size:12pt'>Its benefits in food are more evident than expected. They are providing benefits related to immunity, gastrointestinal tract, cancer and HIV. We will discuss them in detail in later post.<br /></span></p><p><span style='color:black; font-family:Arial; font-size:13pt'><br /> </span> </p></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-46267289755178236502009-11-19T19:49:00.000-08:002009-11-19T19:49:00.315-08:00Desiccation<p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action</b><b>:</b></p> <p align="justify">In the absence of water, a condition known as desiccation, microorganisms cannot grow or reproduce but can remain viable for years. Then, when water is made available to them, they can resume their growth and division. This ability is used in the laboratory when microbes are preserved by lyophilization, or freeze-drying. Certain foods are also freeze-dried (for example, coffee and some fruit additives for dry cereals).</p> <p align="justify"><b>Resistance and Desiccation:</b></p> <p align="justify">The resistance of vegetative cells to desiccation varies with the species and the organism's environment. For example, the gonorrhea bacterium can withstand dryness for only about an hour, but tuberculosis bacterium can remain viable for months. Viruses are generally resistant to desiccation, but they are not as resistant as bacterial endospores, some of which have survived for centuries. This ability of certain dried microbes and endospores to remain viable is important in a hospital setting. Dust, clothing, bedding, and dressing might contain infectious microbes in dried mucus, urine, pus, and feces.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-66842414011923786812009-10-24T20:50:00.000-07:002009-10-24T20:50:00.222-07:00Osmotic Pressure<p><b>Mode of Action:</b></p> <p align="justify">The use of high concentrations of salts and sugars to preserve food is based on the effects of osmotic pressure. High concentrations of these substances create a hypertonic environment that causes water to leave the microbial cell, this effect is also called as plasmolysis. Loss of water severely interferes with cell function and eventually leads to cell death. This process resembles preservation by desiccation, in that both methods deny the cell the moisture it needs for growth.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Application of Osmotic Pressure:</b></p> <p align="justify">The use of sugar jellies, jams, and syrups or salts solution in curing meat and making pickles plasmolysis most organisms present and prevents growth of new organisms. A few halophilic organisms, however, thrive in these conditions and cause spoilage, especially of pickles, and some fungi can live on the surface of jams.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Limitations:</b></p> <p align="justify">As a general rule, molds and yeasts are much more capable than bacteria of growing in materials with low moisture or high osmotic pressures. This property of molds, sometimes combine with their ability to grow under acidic conditions, is the reason fruits and grains are spoiled by molds rather than by bacteria. It is also part of the reason molds are able to form mildew on a damp wall or a shower curtain.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-57682885774020887742009-10-14T20:46:00.000-07:002009-10-14T20:46:00.571-07:00High Pressure<p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action:</b></p> <p align="justify">High pressure applied to liquid suspensions in transferred instantly and evenly throughout the same. If the pressure is high enough, the molecular structures of proteins and carbohydrates are altered, resulting in rapid inactivation of vegetative bacterial cells. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Limitation and Solutions:</b></p> <p align="justify">Endospores are relatively resistant to high pressure. They can however, be killed by other techniques, such as combining high pressure with elevated temperatures or by alternating pressure cycles that cause spore germination, followed by pressure-caused death of resulting vegetative cells. Fruit juices preserved by high pressure treatments have been marketed in Japan the United States. An advantage is that these treatments preserve the flavors, colors, nutrient values of the products.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-59402563606884751922009-10-09T20:45:00.000-07:002009-10-09T20:45:00.181-07:00Freeze Drying<p align="justify">Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, is the drying of a material from the frozen state. This process is used in the manufacture of some brands of instant coffee; freeze-dried instant coffee has a more natural flavor than other kinds. Microbiologists use lyophilization for long-term preservation rather than destruction of cultures of microorganisms. Organisms are rapidly frozen in alcohol and dry ice or in liquid nitrogen and are then subjected to a high vacuum to remove all the water while in the frozen state. Rapid freezing allows only very tiny ice crystal to form in cells, so the organisms survive this process. Organism so treated can be kept alive for years, store under vacuum in the freeze-dried state.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-51570330346977094552009-10-04T20:43:00.000-07:002009-10-04T20:43:00.394-07:00Drying<p align="justify">Drying can be used to preserve foods because the absence of water inhibits the action of enzymes. Many foods, including peas, beans, raisins, and other fruits, are often preserved by drying. Yeast used in baking also can be preserved by drying. Endospores presents on such foods cab survive drying, but they do not produce toxins. Dried pepperoni sausage and smoked fish retain enough moisture for microorganism to grow. Because smoked fish is not cooked, eating it poises a risk of infection. Sealing such fish in plastic bags creates conditions that allow anaerobes such as Clostridium botulinum to grow.</p> <p align="justify">Drying also naturally minimizes the spread o infectious agents. Some bacteria, such as Treponema pallidum, which causes syphilis, are extremely sensitive to drying and die almost immediately on a dry surface; thus they can be prevented from spreading by keeping toilet seats and other bathroom fixtures dry. Drying of laundry in dryers or in the sunshine also destroys pathogens.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-36093281831085480512009-09-29T20:41:00.000-07:002009-09-29T20:41:00.424-07:00Low Temperature<p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">The effect of low temperatures on microorganisms depends on the particular microbe and the intensity of application. For example, at temperatures of ordinary refrigerators (0 ˚ C), the metabolic rate of some microbes is so reduced that they cannot reproduce or synthesize toxins. In other words, ordinary refrigeration has a bacteriostatic effect, but does not kill many microbes. Heat is much more effective than cold at killing microorganism.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Disadvantage:</b></p> <p align="justify">Yet psychrotrophs do grow slowly at refrigerator temperatures and will alter the appearance and taste of foods after a time. For example, a single microbe reproducing only three times a day would reach a population of more than 2 million within a week. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Advantage by Medical Point of View:</b></p> <p align="justify">Pathogenic bacteria generally will not grow at refrigerator temperature.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Uses of Cold temperature:</b></p> <p align="justify">Refrigeration is used to prevent food spoilage. Freezing, drying, and freeze-drying are used to preserve both foods and microorganism, but these methods do not achieve sterilization.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Optimum Conditions:</b></p> <p align="justify">Surprisingly, some bacteria can grow at temperatures several degrees below freezing. Most foods remain unfrozen until -2<sup>o</sup>C or lower. Rapidly attained subfreezing temperatures tend to render microbes dormant but do not necessarily kill them. Slow freezing is more harmful to bacteria; the ice crystals that form and grow disrupt the cellular and molecular structure of the bacteria. Thawing, being inherently slower is actually the more damaging part of a freeze-thaw cycle. Once frozen, one third of the population of some vegetative bacteria might survive a year, whereas other species might have very few survivors after this time.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Results of Low Temperature Treatment:</b></p> <p align="justify">Many eukaryotic parasites, such as the roundworms that cause trichinosis, are killed by several days of freezing temperatures.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Conditions:</b></p> <p align="justify">Many fresh foods can be prevented from spoiling by keeping them at 5 ° C (ordinary refrigerator temperature). </p> <p align="justify"><b>Limitations:</b></p> <p align="justify">However, storage should be limited to a few days because some bacteria and molds continue to grow at this temperature. To convince yourself of this, recall some of the strange things you have found growing on left over of the back of your refrigerator. In rare instances strains of Clostridium botulinum have been found growing and producing lethal toxins in a refrigerator when the organism were deep within a container of food, where anaerobic conditions exist.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Freezing:</b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Uses of Freezing:</b></p> <p align="justify">Freezing at -20 ° C is used to preserve foods in homes and in the food industry. Although freezing does not sterilize foods, it does significantly slow the rate of chemical reactions so that microorganism does not cause food to spoil. Frozen foods should not be thawed and refrozen. Repeated freezing and thawing of foods causes large ice crystals to form in the foods during slow freezing. Cell membranes in the foods are ruptured, and nutrients leak out. The texture of foods is thus altered, and they become less palatable. It also allows bacteria to multiply while food is thawed, making the food more susceptible to bacterial degradation.</p> <p align="justify">Freezing can be used to preserve microorganisms, but this requires a much lower temperature than that used for food preservation. Microorganism are usually suspended in glycerol or protein to prevent the formation of large ice crystal (which could puncture cells), cooled with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) to a temperature of -78 ° C, and then held there. Alternatively, they can be placed in liquid nitrogen and cooled to – 180 ° C.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-54484296245520560872009-09-24T20:38:00.000-07:002009-09-24T20:38:00.347-07:00Ultrasonic Vibrations<p align="justify">Ultrasonic vibrations are high-frequency sound waves beyond the range of human hearing. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Optimum Conditions and Mode of Action for Ultrasonics:</b></p> <p align="justify">Ultrasonic waves or wave's frequencies above 15000 cycles per second, can cause bacteria to caviatate. Cavitation is the formation of a partial vacuum in a liquid—in this case, the fluid cytoplasm in the bacterial cell. Bacteria so treated disintegrate, and their proteins are denatured. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Cold Boiling:</b></p> <p align="justify">When propagated in fluids, ultrasonic vibrations cause the formation of microscopic bubbles, or cavities, and the water appears to boils. Some observers call this "cold boiling." The cavities rapidly collapse and send out shock waves. Microorganisms in the fluid are quickly disintegrated by the external pressures. The formation and implosion of the cavities are known as cavitation. (Figure) illustrates this process.</p> <p align="justify"> </p> <div align="justify"> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"><tbody> <tr> <td width="110"></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPvYpwlsa8rKmlGXAquRAN4gUmEWQQRLa0MWD-zjG1xyrkWCx7lH5b06OA9lxNxiGvHHnqLHl5GGqAIatsLaGXvAB1tNBeph-ZhaSnMkmQBiN-XM6rLYZYNOLxqjQSYE7Eil3sigdlWbJF/s1600-h/clip_image002%5B5%5D.jpg"><img style="border-right-width: 0px; display: inline; border-top-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px" title="clip_image002" border="0" alt="clip_image002" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEica2c84roRfIHgF_ttbImufpx2_UWM46uulVKhLdX0DV4vkP_LBqebFpykni-KmRml6k1x371Mm03wax5mTITqGIjuatJ3FRb1-L4nRYgRj-83ECvxp9ZNbNyjsId5D2UBgcV9c4Gk1zeA/?imgmax=800" width="397" height="153" /></a></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p align="justify"><b>Applications:</b></p> <p align="justify">Ultrasonic vibrations are valuable in research for breaking open tissue cells and obtaining their parts for study. A device called the cavitron is used by dentists to clean teeth, and ultrasonic machines are available for cleaning dental plates, jewelry, and coins. A major appliance company has also experimented with an ultrasonic washing machine. Many research laboratories us e ultrasonic probes for cell disruption and hospitals use ultrasonic devices to clean their instruments. When use with an effective germicide, an ultrasonic device may achieve sterilization, but the current trend is to use ultrasonic vibrations as a cleaning agent and follow the process by sterilization in an autoclave.</p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Limitations of Method:</b></p> <p align="justify">As a sterilizing agent, ultrasonic vibrations have receive minimal attention because liquid is required and other method are more efficient. </p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-26985023144968177832009-09-19T18:39:00.000-07:002009-09-19T18:39:00.568-07:00Ionizing Radiation: (Radiation Sterilization)<p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Both, X rays and Gamma rays have wavelength shorter than the wavelength of ultraviolet light. X rays, which have wavelength of 0.1 to 40 nm, and gamma rays, which have even shorter wavelength, are forms of ionizing radiation, so named because it can dislodge electrons from atoms, creating ions. (Longer wavelengths comprise nonionizing radiation.) These forms of radiation also kill microorganisms and viruses and ionizing radiation damages DNA and produces peroxides, which act as powerful oxidizing agents in cells. This radiation can also kill or cause mutations in human cells if it reaches them.</p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Production of Gamma rays:</b></p> <p align="justify">Gamma rays are emitted by certain radioactive elements such as cobalt, and electron beams are produced by accelerating electrons to high energies in special machines.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Production of X rays:</b></p> <p align="justify">X rays, which are produced by machines in a manner similar to the production of electron beams, are similar in nature to gamma rays.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Advantage of Gamma rays:</b></p> <p align="justify">Gamma rays penetrate deeply but may requite hours to sterilize large masses.</p> <p align="justify"><b>High energy Electron Beams:</b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Effectiveness of Electron Beam:</b></p> <p align="justify">High energy electron beams have much lower penetration power but usually require only a few seconds of exposure. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action of Ionizing Radiations</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">The principal effect of ionizing radiation is the ionization of water, which forms highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. These radicals react with organic cellular components, especially DNA.</p> <p align="justify">The so-called target theory of damage by radiation supposes that ionizing particles, or packets of energy, pass through or close to vital portions of the cell; these constitute "hits." One, or a few, hits may only cause nonlethal mutations, some of them conceivably useful. More hits are likely to cause sufficient mutations to kill the microbe.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Application of Method</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">The food industry has recently renewed it interest in the use of radiation for food preservation. It can be used to prevent spoilage in seafood by doses of 100 to 250 kilorads, in meats and poultry by doses of 50 to 100 kilorads, and in fruits by doses of 200 to 300 kilorads. (one kilorad equals 1000 rads) many consumers in the United States reject irradiation foods for fear o receiving radiation, but such foods are quite safe --- free of both pathogens and radiation. In Europe, mil and other foods are often irradiated to achieve sterility. Especially high energy electron beams, is used for the sterilization pharmaceuticals and disposable dental and medical supplies, such as plastic syringes, surgical gloves, suturing materials, and catheters. As a protection against Bioterrorism, the postal service often uses electron beam radiation to sterilize certain classes of mail. These radiations can be used to differentiate between Gram positive and negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive to ionizing radiations than gram-negative bacteria. Ionizing radiations are currently used to sterilize such heat sensitive pharmaceuticals as vitamins, hormones, and antibiotics, as well as certain plastics and suture materials.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Worldwide Importance and Controversy</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Ionizing radiations have also been approved for controlling microorganisms, and for preserving foods, as noted in MIcrofocus 21.4. The approval has generated much controversy, fueled by activists concerned about the safety of factory workers and consumers. First used in 1921 to inactivate Trichinella spiralis, the agent of trichinosis, irradiation is now used as a preservative in more than 40 countries for over 100 food items, including potatoes, onions, cereals, flour, fresh fruit, and poultry. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved cobalt-60 irradiation to preserve poultry in the early 1990s, and in 1997, it extended the approval to preserve red meat such as beef, lamb and pork.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-25798192800804036682009-09-14T18:34:00.000-07:002009-09-14T18:34:00.502-07:00Strong Visible Light: (Radiation Sterilization)<p align="justify">Sunlight has been known for years to have a bactericidal effect; nut the effect is due primarily to ultraviolet rays in the sunlight. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Introduction </b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Strong visible light, which contains light of wavelength from 400 to 700 nm (violet to red light).</p> <p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Visible light can have direct bactericidal effects by oxidizing light-sensitive molecules such as riboflavin and porphyrins (components of oxidative enzymes) in bacteria. For that reason, bacterial cultures should be exposed to strong light during laboratory manipulations. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Application of Strong Light</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">The fluorescent dyes cosin and methylene blue can denature proteins in the presence of strong light because they absorb energy and cause oxidation of proteins and nucleic acids. The combination of a dye and strong light can used to rid materials of both with bacteria and viruses.</p> <p align="justify">Radiation Spectra is available here.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-42382808474547232212009-09-09T18:32:00.000-07:002009-09-09T18:32:00.369-07:00Microwave: (Radiation Sterilization)<p align="justify"><b>Introduction </b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Microwave radiation, in contrast with gamma, X ray, and ultraviolet radiation, falls at the longer wavelength end of the electro-magnetic spectrum. It has wavelengths of approximately 1 mm to 1 m, a range that includes television and police radar wavelengths.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Sterilization by Microwave Oven:</b></p> <p align="justify">A specialized microwave oven has recently become available that can be used to sterilize media in just 10 minutes. It has 12 pressure vessels, each of which holds 100 ml of medium. Microwave energy increases the pressure of the medium inside the vessels until sterilizing temperatures are reached.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Applications of Microwaves</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Microwave oven frequencies are tuned to match energy levels in water molecules. In the liquid state, water molecules quickly absorbs the microwave energy and than release it to surrounding materials as heat. The molecules are set into high-speed motion, and the heat of friction is transferred of foods, which become hot rapidly. Thus, materials that do not contain water, such as plates made of paper, china, or plastic, remain cool while the moist food on them becomes heated. </p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Limitations of Microwave Ovens</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Other than the heat generated, there is no specific activity against microorganisms.</p> <p align="justify">For this reason the home microwave cannot be used to sterilize items such as bandages and glassware. Conduction of energy is metals leads to problems such as sparking, which makes most metallic items also unsuitable for microwave sterilization. Moreover, bacterial endospores, which contain almost no water, are not destroyed by microwaves. </p> <p align="justify"><b>Laser:</b></p> <p align="justify">A final form of radiation we shall consider is light energy. When concentrated by sophisticated devices, light energy forms a laser beam. The word laser is an acronym of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Advantage of Lasers</b></p> <p align="justify">Recent experiments indicate that laser beams can be used to sterilize instruments and the air in operating rooms, as well as a wound surface. Microorganisms are destroyed in a fraction of a second, but the laser beam must reach all parts of the material to effect sterilization.</p> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"><tbody> <tr> <td width="110"></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyext9bpehmKjUurgjMQn_cjD_Lbs57_nEV5mgNSildPm-YZ9wxsDqyxZ3N8Ts9K5q_H9JHZcCo3UgbbI6_bRFuxVJKwTrU1ZgrJqHfHFuHKw1Geqys-B2B2uFqTTYKE_zqyF5Jv9K_B_8/s1600-h/clip_image002%5B5%5D.jpg"><img style="border-bottom: 0px; border-left: 0px; display: inline; border-top: 0px; border-right: 0px" title="clip_image002" border="0" alt="clip_image002" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOWscS7ZJbqi43TKDg9Wr_ohNdA4Yy0A5sGoyBtQ5W1wDDe-oqtIJkkCw8VFvKg2a8tpwB72F2-H1Ve7CFdXmVlSUnChvy668tJlCbAJ_TCgmivKHSNMWRMeO7nVw76YKl4PtHrCINPpxY/?imgmax=800" width="409" height="279" /></a></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p align="justify"><b>Caution</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Caution should be observed in cooking foods in the home microwave oven. Geometry and differences in density of the food being cooked can cause certain regions to become hotter than other, sometimes leaving very cold spots. Consequently, to cook foods thoroughly in a microwave oven, it is necessary to rotate the items either mechanically or by hand. For example, pork roasts must be turned frequently and cooked thoroughly to kill any cysts of the pork roundworm Trichinella. Failure to kill such cysts could lead to the disease trichinosis, in which cysts of the worm become embedded in human muscles and other tissues. All experimentally infected pork roasts, when microwaved without rotation, showed live worm remaining in some portion at the end of standard cooking time.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8198409431623205252.post-41223317486966790132009-09-04T18:26:00.000-07:002009-09-04T18:26:00.277-07:00Radiation: A Sterilization Method<p align="justify"><b>Nonionizing Radiation:</b></p> <p align="justify">Nonionizing radiation has a wavelength longer than that or ionizing radiation, usually greater than about 1 nm. The best example of non ionizing radiation is ultraviolet (UV) light.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Mode of Action:</b></p> <p align="justify">When microorganisms are subjected to UV light, cellular DNA absorbs the energy by purines and pyrimidine bases, and adjacent thymine molecules link together, as figure illustrates. Linked thymine molecules are unable to encode adenine on messenger RNA molecules during the process of protein synthesis. Moreover, replication of the chromosome in binary fission is impaired. The damaged organism can no longer produce critical proteins or reproduce, and it quickly dies. Ultraviolet light is especially effective in inactivating viruses. However, it kills far fewer bacteria than one might expect because of DNA repair mechanisms. Once DNA is repaired, new molecules of RNA and protein can be synthesized to replace the damaged molecules.</p> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"><tbody> <tr> <td width="181"></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqwTM2t9D1zqP1WhWh-m0m_MF3ALqsLKzzPRG7Sxc9UdFJz5kMYmmx_6fjd1zIWEo-GyPaa6dkxOcyEpaozC-0cz-PhvNqps0eGcnkyUV-x8MjJtQUiIuC493CL_1n_8_wjsU-AAv4celi/s1600-h/clip_image002%5B5%5D.jpg"><img style="border-right-width: 0px; display: inline; border-top-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; margin-left: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; margin-right: 0px" title="clip_image002" border="0" alt="clip_image002" align="left" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYqzNtnWJEv1OtskQOAWgV-eI49ZTqbItReWMIqeGshXhTL9DMd1XFH2VBq_-OrS-vxYo64YgeZaVnwKMlpXcEt2pHORkVeK6e8AkzRaQscgUXud2lt9Ut2XjIOd0LaAjyyU2VaMslZrYb/?imgmax=800" width="377" height="326" /></a></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p align="justify"><b>Conditions for Microbe control</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Ultraviolet (UV) light consists of light of wavelengths between 40 to 390 nm, but wavelength in the 200 nm range are most effective in killing microorganisms But according to some books wavelength between 260 – 265 nm is most effective.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Uses of Ultraviolet</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">Ultraviolet light effectively reduces the microbial population where direct exposure takes place. It is used to limit airborne or surface contamination in a hospital room, morgue, pharmacy, toilet facility, or food service operation. In some communities, ultraviolet light is replacing chlorine in sewage treatment. When chlorine-treated sewage effluent is discharged into streams or other bodies of water, carcinogenic compounds form and may enter the food chain. The cost of removing chlorine before discharging treated effluent could add as much as $100 per year to the sewage bills of the average American family, and very few sewage plants do this. Running the sewage effluent under ultraviolet light before discharging it can destroy microorganism without altering the odor, pH, or chemical composition of the water and without forming carcinogenic compounds.</p> <p align="justify"><b></b></p> <p align="justify"><b>Advantages</b><b>:</b><b></b></p> <p align="justify">It does penetrate air, effectively reducing the number of airborne microorganism and killing them on surfaces on operating rooms and rooms that will contain caged animals. To help sanitize the air without irradiation humans, these lights can be turned on when there rooms are not in use. . Hanging laundry outdoors on bright, sunny days takes advantage of the ultraviolet light present in sunlight. Although the quantity of UV rays in sunlight is small, these rays may help kill bacteria on clothing, especially diapers.</p> <p align="justify"><b>Disadvantage of UV Light:</b></p> <p align="justify">A major disadvantage of UV light as a disinfectant is that the radiation is not very penetrating, so the organism to be killed must be directly exposed to the rays. It is noteworthy microorganisms in the air and upper layers of the soil, but it may not the effective against all bacterial spores. Organisms protected by solids and such coverings as paper, glass, and textiles are not affected. Another potential problem is that UV light can damage human eyes, and prolonged exposure can cause burns and skin cancer in humans. And it may cause damage in human skin cells and permanent damage the eyes.</p> <p align="justify"><b>SUN--Free Source of UV:</b></p> <p align="justify">Sunlight contains some UV radiation, but the shorter wavelengths – those most effective against bacteria – are screened out by the ozone layer of the atmosphere. The antimicrobial effect of sunlight is due almost entirely to the formation of singlet oxygen on the cytoplasm. Many pigments produced by bacteria provide protection from sunlight.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08876647681295077968noreply@blogger.com1